cranial nerve ganglia function
Motor ganglia contain irregularly shaped cell bodies. It also depends on which ganglia have been damaged. Theres no one-treatment-fits-all approach to conditions that affect your brain, and treatments that help one condition can make others worse. 2. The other is connected to the central nervous system via the brain or spinal cord. This lets you control certain muscles without also using other muscles that are nearby. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart, Chapter 20. These structures in the periphery are different than the central counterpart, called a tract. His regular doctor sent him to an ophthalmologist to address the vision loss. The inferior ganglion houses cell bodies of neurons that supply the mucosa of the posterior one-third of the tongue, adjacent pharyngeal wall, auditory tube, and tympanic cavity. The peripheral nervous tissues are out in the body, sometimes part of other organ systems. lacrimal and superior salivatory nuclei of the brainstem send fibers in the pterygopalatine ganglion and submandibular ganglion. Satellite glial cells separate and inhibit interaction between cell bodies in the ganglion. Sensory ganglia are ovoid in shape and contain oval cell bodies with nuclei that form in a circular pattern. Three of the cranial nerves also contain autonomic fibers, and a fourth is almost purely a component of the autonomic system. Verywell Health's content is for informational and educational purposes only. The terminal ganglia that receive input from cranial nerves are found in the head and neck, as well as the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities, whereas the terminal ganglia that receive sacral input are in the lower abdominal and pelvic cavities. A traditional mnemonic is the rhyming couplet, Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet Ah Heaven, in which the initial letter of each word corresponds to the initial letter in the name of each nerve. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Their preganglionic neurons are located in the Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan-. Q. The central axon of these primary sensory neurons projects from their specific cranial nerve ganglia to the solitary tract in the medulla. An Introduction to the Human Body, Chapter 2. Ganglia are aggregations of neuronal somata and are of varying form and size. The cells of the dorsal root ganglion are unipolar cells, classifying them by shape. The vagus nerve (CN X) is responsible for contributing to homeostatic control of the organs of the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities. Legal. Ganglia are groups of nerves, typically with related functions, that meet up inside a capsule of connective tissue. Cranial nerves are the 12 nerves of the peripheral nervous system that emerge from the foramina and fissures of the cranium. Glial (pronounced glee-uhl) cells have many different purposes, helping develop and maintain neurons when youre young, and managing how the neurons work throughout your entire life. Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology. Conditions that affect the basal ganglia include, but arent limited to: The symptoms that can happen with conditions that affect the basal ganglia depend strongly on the type of condition. Ganglia are oval in structure and contain neuronal cell bodies (somata), satellite cells (a type of neck to the coccyx, where the two chains fuse to form the unpaired ganglion impar. Grounded on academic literature and research, validated by experts, and trusted by more than 2 million users. Being in the brain, they are part of the central nervous system, not the peripheral nervous system, as other ganglia are. Because of the involvement of your brains processes with rewards, habits and motivation, the basal ganglia also have a role in illnesses like addiction. spinal nerves, and on the ganglia of selected cranial nerves. The ganglia extend from the upper If you believe that this Physiopedia article is the primary source for the information you are refering to, you can use the button below to access a related citation statement. Most of the bodys sensory neurons are contained here. They are the trigeminal (CNV), facial (CNVII), glossopharyngeal (CNIX), and vagus (CNX) nerves. [2] There are also a number of parasympathetic cranial nerve ganglia. Thank you, {{form.email}}, for signing up. Another group of autonomic ganglia are the terminal ganglia that receive central input from cranial nerves or sacral spinal nerves and are responsible for regulating the parasympathetic aspect of homeostatic mechanisms. The accessory (CNXI) and hypoglossal (CNXII) nerves are also strictly motor. The facial nerve is responsible for the muscles involved in facial expressions, as well as part of the sense of taste and the production of saliva. Protecting the basal ganglia is very similar to taking care of your entire brain, as well as your body overall. Figure 1: Schematic summarizing the origin and general distribution of the cranial nerves. In the autonomic nervous system, fibers from the central nervous system to the ganglia are known as preganglionic fibers, while those from the ganglia to the effector organ are called postganglionic fibers . In: StatPearls [Internet]. Motor ganglia locations include: The basal ganglia are located in the brain stem, thalamus, and cerebral cortex areas of the brain. The glossopharyngeal nerve, CN IX, is the ninth paired cranial nerve. Anosmia results in a loss of the enjoyment of food. Motor axons connect to skeletal muscles of the head or neck. The vestibular nerve is primarily responsible for maintaining body balance and eye movements, while the cochlear nerve is responsible for hearing. The information enters the ganglia, excites the neuron in the ganglia and then exits. Cranial Nerve Ganglion (not all CN have) is analogous to the dorsal root ganglion, except that it is associated with a cranial nerve, instead of a spinal nerve (associated with the spinal cord). A type of sensory ganglion is a cranial nerve ganglion. Nerves to cranial nerves II, III IV, VI and IX. The Cardiovascular System: Blood, Chapter 19. inferior salivatory nucleus of the brainstem synapse in the otic ganglion. Oculomotor nerve (CN III) Steph Coelho is a freelance health writer, web producer, and editor based in Montreal. How can that be cured? Neurons from the Cranial nerve function depends on whether each nerve is composed of motor, sensory or mixed nerves, and also on the region where the nerve endings are located. The hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) is responsible for controlling the muscles of the lower throat and tongue. Policy. They are part of the peripheral nervous system and carry nerve signals to and from the central nervous system. However, ongoing research continues to uncover other ways that the basal ganglia interact with other parts of your brain. The names of the nerves have changed over the years to reflect current usage and more accurate naming. Several types of diagnostic tests are possible with conditions that affect the basal ganglia. By Steph Coelho They are referred to as prevertebral because they are anterior to the vertebral column. paravertebral ganglia, are the autonomic ganglia of the SNS. Last reviewed: November 24, 2022 Q. It is found within the fundus of the internal auditory meatus and contains primary bipolar sensory neurons of the vestibular pathway. The ophthalmologist recognizes a greater problem and immediately sends him to the emergency room. They are divided into two broad categories, the sensory ganglia and the motor ganglia (which are associated with the autonomic nervous system). petrous part of the Neuroanatomy, Cranial Nerve 7 (Facial) [Updated 2020 Jul 31]. The roots of cranial nerves are within the cranium, whereas the ganglia are outside the skull. In this article, we will explore their respective anatomy and subtypes. All cranial nerves originate from nuclei in the brain. Like the sensory neurons associated with the spinal cord, the sensory neurons of cranial nerve ganglia are unipolar in shape with associated satellite cells. Reviewer: The facial nerve has five branches that perform distinct motor functions: Frontal (temporal): Controls your forehead muscles. Similarly, an injury to the dorsal root ganglia in the spine, such as spinal vertebrae compression, can cause sensory issues, like tingling in the feet. The Tissue Level of Organization, Chapter 6. The ability of these neurons to be replaced is lost with age. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan-. The roots of cranial nerves are within the, most common type of sensory ganglia. From here, it innervates its Figure 2: Location of the branchial motor and somatic motor cranial nerve nuclei. Reading time: 14 minutes. If they do, they may end up with a permanent disability. The fibers which link the ganglia are called the preganglionic and postganglionic fibers respectively. Ganglia are clusters of nerve cell bodies found throughout the body. This gives rise to tear and mucus production respectively. Cranial Nerve Ganglia A ganglion (ganglia for plural) is a group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. Q. The olfactory nerve (CN I) and optic nerve (CN II) are responsible for the sense of smell and vision, respectively. W.M. Modulation of Movement by the Basal Ganglia. Ganglia can be categorized, for the most part, as either sensory ganglia or autonomic ganglia, referring to their primary functions. Their numerical order (1-12) is determined by their skull exit location (rostral to caudal). The sensory neurons of the olfactory epithelium have a limited lifespan of approximately one to four months, and new ones are made on a regular basis. It also processes signals that affect your emotions and your motivation. Though the enteric nervous system receives input originating from central neurons of the autonomic nervous system, it does not require CNS input to function. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages. Sensory ganglia: Dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves and the ganglia of selected cranial nerves. In embryonic development, the trigeminal ganglia (CN V, historically the semilunar ganglion, Gasser's ganglion or Gasserian ganglion) is the first to become apparent and . Also, the small round nuclei of satellite cells can be seen surroundingas if they were orbitingthe neuron cell bodies. Meningitis will include swelling of those protective layers of the CNS, resulting in pressure on the optic nerve, which can compromise vision. A nerve ganglion is a group of nerves with similar or related functions that serves as a relay station or connection point for different nervous system structures. [1] Internal organs: These include prevertebral ganglia and terminal ganglia. The oculomotor, facial, and glossopharyngeal nerves contain fibers that contact autonomic ganglia. From what structure do satellite cells derive during embryologic development? Figure 13.4. Ganglia play an essential role in connecting the parts of the peripheral and central nervous systems. The optic nerve enters the CNS in its projection from the eyes in the periphery, which means that it crosses through the meninges. Facial nerve (CN VII) A ganglion (ganglia for plural) is a group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. They are part of the peripheral nervous system and carry nerve signals to and from the central nervous system. stress and danger. Johns Hopkins Medicine. Some of the most important things you can do include: The basal ganglia have a critical job in your brain, and experts are working to understand even more about what they do. Four of these cranial nerves make up the cranial component of the autonomic nervous system responsible for pupillary constriction (oculomotor nerve), salivation and lacrimation (facial and glossopharyngeal nerves), and the regulation of the organs of the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities (vagus nerve). Think of ganglia as the relay stations of the body's nervous system: As one nerve enters a ganglion, another nerve exits it. . 19 Phox2 . Three other autonomic ganglia that are related to the sympathetic chain are the prevertebral ganglia, which are located outside of the chain but have similar functions. Lets take a look at the different types. By the end of this section, you will be able to: A ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the periphery (a.k.a. With what structures in a skeletal muscle are the endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium comparable? Another job of the basal ganglia is processing how you evaluate goals and risks. Author: What Are Voluntary Muscles (Skeletal Muscles)? In this category we have two distinct groups: Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons originate in the nucleus ambiguus and the dorsal motor nucleus of the brainstem. 866.588.2264 For example, the heart receives two inputs such as these; one increases heart rate, and the other decreases it. The basal ganglia, or basal nuclei, are a group of subcortical structures found deep within the white matter of the brain. Some parts of the basal ganglia can also relay signals from different areas. effector organ (cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or glands). The neurons of cranial nerve ganglia are also unipolar in shape with associated satellite cells. Treatments are also available for heavy metal poisoning. In addition it contains the cell bodies for fibers that gather sensory information from the nasal cavity, part of the soft palate, and the sinus cavities, the auricle and the external auditory meatus (outer ear). The vestibulocochlear nerve is responsible for the senses of hearing and balance. 2023 Kim Bengochea, Regis University, Denver. This involves the dermatome supplied by the sensory nerve affected. Conversely, motor cranial nerves help control muscle movements in. The Peripheral Nervous System, Chapter 18. A good mnemonic to remember the parasympathetic ganglia is: "Cats Prefer Sexy Owners". This can apply to nervous tissue (as in this instance) or structures containing blood vessels (such as a choroid plexus). They serve essentially as nerve relay stations, shuttling information back and forth between different parts of the nervous system. Axons from the rostral gustatory solitary nucleus project to the ventral posterior medial nucleus of the thalamus VPM and ultimately terminate, both crossed and uncrossed, at the neocortex, the gustatory . They can be classified as sensory nerves, motor nerves, or a combination of both, meaning that the axons in these nerves originate out of sensory ganglia external to the cranium or motor nuclei within the brainstem. Ganglia can be thought of as synaptic relay stations between neurons. Physiopedia articles are best used to find the original sources of information (see the references list at the bottom of the article). The trigeminal nerve is also called cranial nerve V. Function The trigeminal nerve is the largest of the 12 cranial nerves. View a virtual slide of a nerve in longitudinal section at the University of Michigan WebScope to explore the tissue sample in greater detail. Sympathetic chain ganglia, also known as Learning anatomy is a massive undertaking, and we're here to help you pass with flying colours. Because the basal ganglia involve processes like emotions, motivation and habits, they also affect how you learn and how you feel in response to things happening around you. This information includes touch, smell, taste, sound, and visual stimuli. The Lymphatic and Immune System, Chapter 26. Sensory ganglia contain unipolar sensory neurons and are found on the dorsal root of all spinal nerves as well as associated with many of the cranial nerves. The geniculate ganglion is the sensory ganglion of the The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue, Chapter 13. The basal ganglia consist of five pairs of nuclei: caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic . She specializes in covering general wellness and chronic illness. They form a part of the extrapyramidal motor system and work in tandem with the pyramidal and limbic systems . Those are called mixed nerves. The neurons from the The facial and glossopharyngeal nerves are both responsible for conveying gustatory, or taste, sensations as well as controlling salivary glands. The former tend to be located Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System, Chapter 12. Those are ganglia with special sensory functions and they are similar to the dorsal root ganglia except for they are associated with the cranial nerves and not the spinal nerves[1]. Ganglia can be thought of as synaptic relay stations between neurons. U.S. National Library of Medicine | MedlinePlus.gov. The hypoglossal nerve is responsible for controlling the muscles of the lower throat and tongue. The functions of the cranial nerves are sensory, motor, or both. Conditions that affect the peripheral nervous system may impact ganglia. The basal ganglia are a key part of the network of brain cells and nerves that control your body's voluntary movements. The ANS controls involuntary movements and functions, like your breathing. Figure 4: Somatic sensory pathway of the Trigeminal nerve (CN V). Others are inhibitory, meaning they stop signals from continuing. facial nerve (CN VII) found at the anterior third of the facial nerve genu. Key Terms. The basal ganglia are a group of brain structures linked together, handling complex processes that affect your entire body. cardiac ganglia, going on to innervate the sinuatrial node, and thus decreasing heart rate. The spinal cord: These are called the paravertebral ganglia. In describing the anatomy of the PNS, it is necessary to describe the common structures, the nerves and the ganglia, as they are found in various parts of the body. (2019). The contraction of extraocular muscles is being tested, which is the function of the oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerves. In: Kandel ER, Koester JD, Mack SH, Siegelbaum SA, eds. For example, if your stomach hurts, the sensory neurons of the peripheral nervous system are sending a message through the sensory ganglia to your central nervous system that something is not right. Here is more about the function of ganglia in the body. What Are Glial Cells and What Do They Do? Ganglia can be categorized, for the most part, as either sensory ganglia or autonomic ganglia, referring to their primary functions. They have also sympathetic functions but they are not part of the sympathetic chain, rather are close to the splachnic nerves that follow the main Q. The basal ganglia (pronounced bay-sal gang-lee-uh) are a group of structures near the center of your brain that form important connections. The PNS is composed of the groups of neurons (ganglia) and bundles of axons (nerves) that are outside of the brain and spinal cord. Age-related anosmia is not the result of impact trauma to the head, but rather a slow loss of the sensory neurons with no new neurons born to replace them. The oculomotor fibers initiate pupillary constriction, whereas the facial and glossopharyngeal fibers both initiate salivation. Postganglionic fibers go on to innervate the parotid gland and minor salivary glands, eliciting the production of saliva. cranial nerve one of twelve nerves connected to the brain that are responsible for sensory or motor functions of the head and neck dorsal (posterior) root ganglion sensory ganglion attached to the posterior nerve root of a spinal nerve endoneurium innermost layer of connective tissue that surrounds individual axons within a nerve enteric plexus Dorsal root ganglia contain clusters of sensory neuron cell bodies which transmit messages relating to pain, touch, and temperature from the PNS, towards the CNS. Schmahmann JD. All content published on Kenhub is reviewed by medical and anatomy experts. She specializes in covering general wellness and chronic illness. Curated learning paths created by our anatomy experts, 1000s of high quality anatomy illustrations and articles. The basal ganglia are separate structures that link up in various ways. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan-. Chapter 4: Functional Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia. 1173185. The vagus nerve displays two ganglia inferior to the Autonomic ganglia, which contain the cell bodies of the autonomic nervous system. The other major category of ganglia are those of the autonomic nervous system, which is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It is found in the modiolus of the cochlea and contains the bodies of the first-order neurons of the acoustic pathway. Sensory ganglia contain unipolar sensory neurons and are associated with many of the cranial nerves. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92777/). They have connective tissues invested in their structure, as well as blood vessels supplying the tissues with nourishment. This type of arrangement in found in a number of invertebrate phyla, and contrasts with the vertebrates, who have their spinal cord above (dorsal to) their gut. They occur in the dorsal roots of spinal nerves, in the sensory roots of the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagal and vestibulocochlear cranial nerves as well as in autonomic nerves and in the enteric nervous system. In summary, autonomic ganglia can be divided into three groups: We will explore each one of these groups in the following section. 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44195 |, Important Updates + Notice of Vendor Data Event. The spiral ganglion: connecting the peripheral and central auditory systems. Another type of sensory ganglion is a cranial nerve ganglion. Unlike in the SNS, pathways in the ANS are composed of two neurons. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. January 5, 2021. The three eye-movement nerves are all motor: the oculomotor (CNIII), trochlear (CNIV), and abducens (CNVI). Without the sense of smell, many sufferers complain of food tasting bland. Some neurons are longer or shorter, depending on their location in your body and what they do. temporal bone, in a dural pouch known as Meckels cave. Three of the nerves are solely composed of sensory fibers; five are strictly motor; and the remaining four are mixed nerves. San Antonio College, ided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School 2012), 12.4: Brain- Diencephalon, Brainstem, Cerebellum and Limbic System, Whitney Menefee, Julie Jenks, Chiara Mazzasette, & Kim-Leiloni Nguyen, ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative, virtual slide of a nerve in longitudinal section, article about a man who wakes with a headache and a loss of vision, https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology, status page at https://status.libretexts.org, Extraocular muscles (other 4), levator palpebrae superioris, ciliary ganglion (autonomic), Trigeminal nuclei in the midbrain, pons, and medulla, Facial nucleus, solitary nucleus, superior salivatory nucleus, Facial muscles, Geniculate ganglion, Pterygopalatine ganglion (autonomic), Cochlear nucleus, Vestibular nucleus/cerebellum, Spiral ganglion (hearing), Vestibular ganglion (balance), Solitary nucleus, inferior salivatory nucleus, nucleus ambiguus, Pharyngeal muscles, Geniculate ganglion, Otic ganglion (autonomic), Terminal ganglia serving thoracic and upper abdominal organs (heart and small intestines), Distinguish between somatic and autonomic structures, including the special peripheral structures of the enteric nervous system, Name the twelve cranial nerves and explain the functions associated with each. They are found in the posterior (dorsal) root of spinal nerves, following the emergence of the dorsal root, that emerges from the intervertebral neural foramina, contain clusters of sensory neuron cell bodies which transmit messages relating to. jugular foramen: the jugular (or superior) ganglion, and the nodose (or inferior) ganglion. The glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) is responsible for controlling muscles in the oral cavity and upper throat, as well as part of the sense of taste and the production of saliva. Read more. Often, the only way to enjoy food is to add seasoning that can be sensed on the tongue, which usually means adding table salt. Currently, theres no cure for this disease. Here, the preganglionic neuron, found in the Read our, The Anatomy of the Central Nervous System. This page titled 12.5: Cranial Nerves is shared under a CC BY license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Whitney Menefee, Julie Jenks, Chiara Mazzasette, & Kim-Leiloni Nguyen (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative) . The dorsal root ganglia (DRG), cranial nerve ganglia, and autonomic ganglia (AG) are the three types of PNS ganglia while the basal ganglia in the brain and retinal ganglion in the retina are the two types of CNS ganglia. Anatomy & Physiology by Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
